Electronics Introduction

  FPGAs ( Field-Programmable Gate Arrays ) support various   I/O interface standards   for communication with external devices. These standards define voltage levels, signaling methods, and protocols. Below are the most commonly used ones: 📌 1. Single-Ended Standards (One signal line per data bit, referenced to ground.) Standard Voltage Speed Use Case LVCMOS  (Low-Voltage CMOS) 1.2V, 1.8V, 2.5V, 3.3V < 500 Mbps GPIO, slow peripherals LVTTL  (Low-Voltage TTL) 3.3V < 100 Mbps Legacy systems, microcontrollers HSTL  (High-Speed Transceiver Logic) 1.5V ~ 200 Mbps Memory interfaces (QDR, DDR) SSTL  (Stub-Series Terminated Logic) 1.8V, 2.5V ~ 400 Mbps DDR SDRAM interfaces 📌 2. Differential Standards (Uses two complementary signals for noise immunity & high speed.) Standard Voltage Speed Use Case LVDS  (Low-Voltage Differential Signaling) 350 mV (differential) 1+ Gbps High-speed serial links (cameras, displays) RSDS  (Reduced Swing Diffe...

  At power-up, an   FPGA ( Field-Programmable Gate Array )   must be configured to implement the desired digital logic. This process involves loading a   configuration bitstream   into the FPGA, which defines the behavior of its programmable logic blocks, interconnects, and I/O pins. Below is a detailed explanation of how an FPGA is configured at power-up: 1.  Configuration Bitstream The  bitstream  is a binary file generated by the FPGA design tools (e.g., Xilinx Vivado, Intel Quartus) during the design process. It contains information about: Logic block configurations. Routing connections. I/O pin settings. Clock management and other features. 2.  Configuration Modes FPGAs support multiple configuration modes, depending on the application and system requirements. The most common modes are: a.  Master Mode The FPGA acts as the  master  and controls the configuration process. It reads the bitstream from an external non-volatil...