Electronics Introduction

  Generating   PWM (Pulse Width Modulation)   on an STM32 microcontroller involves configuring a   timer (TIM)   peripheral to produce a variable-duty-cycle signal. Below is a step-by-step guide using   STM32 HAL   and   register-level   methods. 1. PWM Generation Using STM32 HAL (CubeMX) (A) CubeMX Setup Enable Timer  (e.g.,  TIM1 ,  TIM2 , etc.) in PWM mode. Configure Channel  (e.g.,  CH1 ,  CH2 ) as  PWM Generation . Set: Prescaler ( PSC )  – Divides the timer clock. Auto-Reload Register ( ARR )  – Sets PWM frequency. Pulse ( CCR )  – Sets duty cycle. (B) Code Implementation c # include "stm32f4xx_hal.h" TIM_HandleTypeDef htim2 ; void PWM_Init ( ) { TIM_OC_InitTypeDef sConfigOC = { 0 } ; htim2 . Instance = TIM2 ; htim2 . Init . Prescaler = 84 - 1 ; // PSC = 84 → 1 MHz clock (if APB1 = 84 MHz) htim2 . Init . CounterMode = TIM_COUNTERMODE_UP ; htim2 . Ini...

 Understanding the basic concepts of FPGA timing analysis is crucial to ensure that your design meets performance and reliability requirements. Here’s a structured overview:  What Is FPGA Timing Analysis? Timing analysis is the process of verifying whether all signals in your FPGA design arrive at their destination within allowed time constraints , ensuring correct logic operation at the target clock frequency.  Key Concepts 1. Clock Domains A clock domain is a group of flip-flops or registers driven by the same clock signal. Designs can be single-clock or multi-clock , and timing analysis must be performed for each domain. 2. Setup Time The minimum amount of time before the clock edge that data must be stable at a flip-flop’s input. If violated: Setup timing violation → data may be incorrect. Clock Period ≥ Data Path Delay + Setup Time \text{Clock Period} \geq \text{Data Path Delay} + \text{Setup Time} Clock Perio...